Veterinary Gynecology

 

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 

v OVARIES : These are two oval bodies one on each side, situated slightly above to the middle of the pelvic inlet and are attached to the broad ligament by a fold of peritoneum called Mesovarium.

Ø  In ruminants, presence of rumen in left side perhaps restricts the blood supply to the left ovary. therefore, left ovary is less active than the right ovary.

Ø  The mare is also a left ovulator with approximately 60% of the ova come from the left ovary.

Ø  Different shapes of the ovaries in different species :

→ Cow, She buffalo, ewe & doe : Almond-shaped

→ Mare : Bean-shaped (kidney-shaped)

→ Sow : Resembling cluster of grapes (berry-shaped)

Ø  Function of ovaries :

→ Exocrine : Production of ovum through the process of oogenesis and ovulation.

→ Endocrine : Secretion of ovarian hormones Estrogen (follicle secretion) & Progesterone (luteal secretion), Relaxin, Inhibin

v UTERINE TUBES : The uterine tubes are also called oviducts or fallopian tubes or salpinges.

Ø  Each fallopian tube is divided into three parts :

1.     Infundibulum : It is a funnel-shaped structure located at the ovarian end.

2.     Ampulla : It is the middle part of fallopian tube.

3.     Isthmus : It is the constricted portion of fallopian tube which lies close to the uterus.

Ø  Function of Uterine tubes :

→ Collection or reception of ova (infundibulum).

→ Transport of ova.

→ Fertilization of ova (at ampullary-isthmic junction).

v UTERUS : It is a thick hollow muscular organ consisting of two horns, a short body and cervix.

Ø  In the sow, doe, ewe and cow, the uterine horns comprise about 80 to 90% of the total length of uterus while in the mare, they comprise about 50% of the total length of uterus.

Ø  Both the horns are joined by dorsal and ventral intercornual ligaments.

Ø  The endometrium has mushroom like non-glandular projections called caruncles (ruminants)

Ø  These caruncles are arranged in four rows viz. two dorsal rows and two ventral rows.

Ø  These caruncles are convex in shape and about 70-120 in number in cow.

Ø  Type of uterus : Basic four types

1.     Simple uterus : When a uterus has a pear-shaped body with no uterine horns, it is called simple uterus. Ex. human being and other primates

2.     Bicornuate uterus : When a uterus has a small uterine body and two long uterine horns, it is called bicornuate uterus. Ex. sow, bitch, queen, cow, ewe and doe

3.     Bipartite uterus : When a uterus has a prominent uterine body and two uterine horns that are not as long and distinct as in bicornuate type, is called "bipartite uterus. Ex. mare

4.     Duplex uterus : When a uterus has two uterine horns each with a separate cervical canal which opens into vagina, it is called duplex uterus. Ex. rat, rabbit, guinea pig.

Ø  Function of uterus :

→ Transport of sperm towards the fallopian tubes.

→ Implantation of zygote.

→ Nourishment of embryo during early stage by secreting uterine milk.

→ Protection of foetus.

→ Production of a hormone like substance PGFp which has luteolytic effect.

v CERVIX : It is a caudal part of uterus. It has a thick muscular wall capable of contracting to close the passage or capable of relaxing at oestrus or parturition time.

Ø  The lumen of the cervix is tortuous, because it is composed of many folds which fit together.

Ø  It has transverse ridges known as annular rings in cow, doe and ewe.

Ø  It projects into the vagina like a knob and has a central opening called external os.

Ø  Anteriorly, the cervix opens into the body of uterus called internal os.

Ø  Function of cervix :

→ It acts as sperm reservoir and sperm transport.

→ It helps in selection of viable sperm thus preventing the transport of non-viable and defective sperm (filtration of sperm).

→ It secretes mucus during oestrus period.

→ It acts as a barrier against ascending type of infections.

→ It forms cervical seal during gestation/ pregnancy.

v VAGINA : The vagina is a highly elastic musculo-membranous tube located within the pelvis above the urinary bladder and below the rectum.

Ø  It serves as a sheath for the male penis during copulation.

Ø  The luminal space around the cervix is called fornix.

Ø  The external urethral orifice is the landmark junction of vagina and vulva. i.e. vagina is extended from the cervix to the external urethral office.

Ø  The cow is unique in possessing an anterior sphincter muscle in addition to the posterior sphincter.

Ø  At the floor of vagina, there are two ducts along the length of the tube between the muscular and mucus layers, called canals of Gartner which open on either side of the external urethral opening. these are the remanants of wolffian (mesonephric) ducts.

Ø  Function of vagina :

→ It acts as a copulatory organ of females.

→ It serves as an excretory duct for the secretion of cervix, endometrium and oviduct.

→ It serves as the birth canal during parturition.

v VULVA : The vulva or external genitalia consist of the vestibule and the labia.

v VESTIBULE is that portion of the female duct system which is common to both the reproductive and urinary systems.

Ø  The vestibule is extended from the external urethral orifice to the exterior.

Ø  The vestibule is homologous to the penile urethra in the male.

Ø  The vestibular glands or Bartholian glands (Two almond shape) : Located under the mucus membrane in the posterior part of the vestibule, are active during oestrus and secrete a lubricating mucus. These glands keep the vulva of the cow moist during oestrus.

Ø  The vestibular glands are homologous to the bulbourethral glands or cowper's gland of the male.

v A HYMEN (Transverse ridge) is located at the junction of vagina and vestibule which is well defined in the ewe and mare, but ill defined in the cow and sow.

v The labia consist of the labia minora and labia majora.

Ø  The labia minora is homologous to the prepuce in the male and is not prominent in farm animals.

Ø  The labia majora is homologous to the scrotum in the male is that portion of the female system which is visible externally.

Ø  The external opening of vulva is in the form of a slit bounded by two labia which meet at upper and lower commissure.

Ø  The upper commissure is acute and separated from anus by a short distance.

Ø  The lower commissure is elongated and bears a tuft of hairs.

v THE CLITORIS, homologous to the glans penis in the male, is located in ventral commissure about 1 cm inside the labia.

v BROAD LIGAMENT : It is formed by double fold of peritonium with some connective tissue and muscle fibres in between them.

v PELVIC LIGAMENT : There are four pelvic ligaments which also help in formation of pelvic cavity.

1.     Dorsal sacro-iliac ligament

2.     Lateral sacro-iliac ligament

3.     Ilio-Iumbar ligament.

4.     Sacro-sciatic ligament.

PUBERTY AND SEXUAL MATURITY

 

v PUBERTY : It is the period when a male or female is first able to release gametes. In case of female, the first oestrus is the visible sign for attainment of puberty.

v The word puberty originated from latin word "pubscere" that means "to be covered with hair".

v SEXUAL MATURITY :    A         state    in    which    individual    is    fully     sexually mature & has normal reproductive capacity.

v ONSET OF PUBERTY AND OPTIMUM BREEDING AGE (IN MONTHS) IN DIFFERENT SPECIES :

 

Animal	Onset of puberty	Optimum breeding age
Mare	18 – 24	24-36
Exotic Cow	8 – 18	14-22
Indigenous Cow	24 – 30	36
Ewe & Doe	6 – 12	12-18
Sow	5 – 8	8-9
Bitch	6 – 12	12-18
Queen	6 – 12	12-18

 

v FACTORS AFECTING OF PUBERTY :

Ø  Breed : Small breeds attain puberty at an earlier stage. Ex. Nine months in Jersey and 11 months in Holstein Friesian.

Ø  Nutrition : Lack of nutrition delays puberty. So selection of heifer based on weight is more important than age (for breeding). At puberty it should have 2/3rd wt. of mature weight.

Ø  Season : Calf born in winter attain puberty early because season has indirect relation with nutrition availability.

Ø  Environment : High temperature zone animal attain puberty earlier.

v With good nutritional management, most cattle reach puberty between 8 and 13 months of age. Failure to exhibit estrus beyond this time is called pre pubertal anestrus.

ESTROUS CYCLE

 

v ESTROUS CYCLE is the rhythmic sexual behavioural pattern that is exhibited by the female beginning at one estrus (heat) and ending at subsequent estrus. The word "Estrous" is derived form a Greek word "Oistros" meaning "Gad fly".

v CLASSIFICATION OF ESTROUS CYCLE :

1.     Animals could be categorized based on the occurrence of estrous cycle as :

Ø  Monoestrus : The females which exhibit one oestrous cycle in a year is called monoestrus animals e.g., wild animals and bitches.

Ø  Polyoestrus : The females which exhibit regular oestrous cycle throughout the year, is called polyoestrus animals eg., cow, sow and doe.

Ø  Seasonally polyoestrus : The females which exhibit many oestrous cycles during a particular season, are called seasonally polyoestrus animals. eg., mare, ewe, buffalo and cat.

2.     Depending on the ovarian activity again estrous cycle is classified as :

Ø  Spontaneous ovulators : Ovulation is a spontaneous process and occurs during oestrus phase of the cycle in almost all species with the exception (cattle & buffalo –ovulates in metestrus

Ø  Induced ovulators : Ovulation occurs at the time of copulation and is induced by act of coitus. Eg. camel, rabbit, cat, mink, ferret.

v PHASES OF ESTROUS CYCLE :

1.     Follicular Phase : It is the period from the regression of corpora lutea to ovulation. The primary ovarian structure is the Graafian follicle and the primary reproductive hormone is estrogen.

2.     Luteal Phase : The luteal phase is much longer than the follicular phase and extends from ovulation to luteal regression. Predominant ovarian structure is the corpora lutea and the primary reproductive hormone is progesterone.

v STAGES OF ESTROUS CYCLE :

1.     Estrus : Estrus is the period of sexual receptivity and mating. Estradiol is the main reproductie hormone responsible for estrus bhaviour and physiological changes in the reproductive tract.

2.     Metestrus : Metestrus is the period from ovulation and formation of corpora lutea. It is an ill defined phase. The cellular transformation of the follicle to the corpus luteum is called luteinization.

3.     Diestrus : Diestrus is the longest phase of the estrous cycle characterised by a fully functional corpus luteum and high levels of progesterone. Females do not exhibit sexual receptivity.

4.     Proestrus : Proestrus is the "building up period" and begins with luteal regression and ends with onset of estrus and is characterised by a major endocrine transition, from a period of progesterone dominance to a period of estrogen dominance brought about by FSH and LH.

 

Stage	Cycle day	Duration	Events
Estrus	0	12-24 hr.	Mature follicle, High levels estrogen, LH surge

Metestrus	1-3/5	3-5 days	Ovulation, Formation of CL, No response to prostaglandin
Diestrus	5-18	10-15 days (13)	Mature corpus luteum, High levels progesterone, PGF2α cause leuteolysis.
Proestrus	19-21	3 days	CL   regressing,   Maturing   of      new follicle, rising estrogen

 

v Proestrus bleeding seen in bitch due to the vaginal epithelium and endometrium become hyperaemic and congested.

v Metestrus bleeding seen in cattle due to high vascularity of genitallia & due to sudden drop in estrogen level (due to ovulation) petechial haemorrhage and not related to fertilization but indicates that ostrus ovulation takes place.

v True menstruation in primates because of progestron withdrawal.

v ANESTRUS : The prolonged period of sexual quisence during which follicular development is minimal and the corpus luteum although identifiable is regressed and is non-functional.

v Anestrus is observed physiologically in most mares during the winter months and in ewes during the spring and summer.

v In the sow ovulation and reproductive activity is suppressed for a variable period of time following parturition and during lactation. This is commonly referred to as "lactational anestrus".

v SILENT HEAT OR QUIET OVULATION : A condition characterized by normal cyclical activity but without well-marked behavioural signs of heat or oestrus is called silent heat.

Ø  Buffalo is good example of silent estrus.

Ø  In heifers, the estrus associated with first ovulation is usually silent.

OESTRUS DETECTION TECHNIQUES

 

v DIFFERENT METHODS :

1.     By behavioural signs :

→ Loin reflex or Tolerance reflex : When the skin of lumbar and sacral vertebral region is held, all the animals will sink their back, but the animal in oestrus raises its tail to one side of the vulvar lips in addition to sinking its back. This is called loin reflex.

→ Tail reflex : In buffaloes, the skin is kneaded from lumbar region to the base of the tail repeatedly without lapse of time between kneading’s and if she is in heat, raises the tail to one side of the vulvar lips. This is called "Tail Reflex".

→ Clitoris massage reflex : When ventral vulvar lips are massaged gently, the animal in heat bends and raises its back repeatedly simultaneously contracts the abdomen with raising the tail to one side of the vulval lips. Most of the buffaloes get excited on this test. Hence this test should not be performed for the detection of oestrus in buffaloes.

2.     Temporary Engorgement of Teat (TET) : TET has relationship with occurrence of oestrus in buffaloes. It is a peculiar phenomenon exhibited by majority of the buffaloes prior to the onset of real heat. The proestrus behaviour is used by most animal owners as an important tool for detection of incoming oestrous. Duration of TET phenomenon is of 3 days.

3.     Pregnant animals which exhibit symptoms of oestrus, show crystallization pattern in cervical mucus.

4.     Crystoscope : It is the first field tool for determining optimum time of insemination.

→ It is developed by Scientist of I.V.R.I.

→ It is available in the market withdiferent names (Lykascope etc.).

→ It is based on fern pattern of cervical mucus.

5.     Tail turning reflex : When the perineum of the oestrus bitch is massaged, even the bitches of poor libido usually respond with tail movement and keen bitches may adopt an exaggerated standing posture with very marked deflection of the tail.

6.     Behavioural signs of oestrus : The tail head is often raised and the clitoris is exposed by frequent "winking" of the vulva (sometime called "winking of clitoris") in mare.

→ Ewe and Doe : Frequent and peculiar type of bleating which is a good sign of heat in doe. Signs of oestrus are more clear in does than ewes. Ewes display a strong ram-seeking behavioural pattern. Rapid side-to-side or up-and-down tail flagging is a good sign of heat in doe that can be detected in the absence of a buck.

→ Sow : Back-pressure test or riding test or Lordosis is most efficient and practical method of oestrus detection in the sow.

PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS

 

v EXTERNAL EXAMINATION :

Ø  Visual examination : The size of mammary glands / udder begins to increase from about 5th months of gestation in heifers, while in older cows it is usually observed just 2-3 weeks before parturition.

Ø  Abdominal ballotment of foetus on the right side of the animal can be done from 7th month onwards

Ø  Drenching cold water causes the foetal movement from 7th month onwards.

Ø  Enlargement of abdomen (not clear in monotochus animal but in polytochus animal).

v PER - RECTAL EXAMINATION :

Ø  First month also known as Negative stage.

Ø  Second month (31st   to 60th    days) / small sac stage : Slippery feel of foetal membrane when horn is palpated between fingers (double wall) from the 5th week of pregnancy in heifers and from the 6th week in cows (placental palpation).

Ø  Third month (61st - 90th days) or large sac stage : Cervix is stretched or pulled forward.

Ø  Fourth month (91st - 120th days) or Balloon stage :

→ Uterus is abdominal.

→ Cotyledons detectable.

→ Fremitus (+) can be felt.

→ Ovaries are pulled forward and are out of reach i.e. in abdominal cavity.

Ø  Fifth month (121st – 150th days) or sinking stage : Foetus and fluctuations are felt.

Ø  Sixth to seventh month is between 151st -210th days.

Ø  Eight to ninth month (211st – 270th days) :

→ Foetal parts can be clearly felt.

→ Size of the cotyledons increases to about tennis ball size (7 - 8 cm).

→ Foetal bumps are felt when foetus is pressed in the abdominal cavity.

Ø  Slipping of foetal membrane : Early pregnancy diagnosis (from 35 to 90 days) can be best performed by palpating foetal membrane.

Ø  Palpation of amniotic vesicle : From approximately 30 to 65 days of gestation, the amniotic vesicle can be detected as a movable oval object within the uterine lumen. The vesicle is turgid in early pregnancy but becomes flaccid with advancing gestation (after 65 to 70 days) when it is dffficult to detect at all.

Ø  Palpation of placentomes : These are detectable from about 75 days to term.

Ø  Palpation of foetus : The foetus can be palpated from the time of amniotic softening (65 to 70 days) to term.

Ø  Palpation of fremitus : The major blood supply to the gravid uterus is the middle uterine artery, which gets enlarged considerably as pregnancy progresses.

→ Origin : The uterine artery is originated from the pudendal artery at the level of the iliac shaft and travel in the broad ligaments. Thus, one should not confuse with the external iliac artery (it also passes through shaft of ilium) because it does not move when pulled while middle uterine artery moves when pulled.

→ Technique of palpation : The right middle uterine artery can be palpated by directly applying fingers over the right lateral wall of the pelvic cavity and its inlet while the left middle uterine artery is examined by rotating the hand in a clockwise direction and applying finger over the left lateral wall of the pelvic cavity and its inlet.

→ In pregnant animal, a sensation is felt like when a person presses a rubber pipe for partial obstruction of water flow. This sensation or turbulence created by blood flow is called fremitus or whiring or thrill.

→ The presence of bilateral fremitus before 7 to 8 months, especially when the two arteries are symmetrical, this feature strongly suggests bicornual twins.

→ If the fremitus was felt in earlier pregnancy and then disappears indicates death of the foetus.

Ø  Ballottement of foetus : Cardinal sign of pregnancy.

→ After 75 day – fluid currents & striking of fetus due to ballottement.

→ After 7 month – fetus again return into pelvic cavity and it is easily palpated.

Ø  Pregnancy diagnosis is easy in heifers than cows.

Ø  Early pregnancy diagnosis (35th - 45th days) by inexperienced clinician may results into abortion.

→ Reason : Excess pressure applied during manipulation of the vesicles and embryo results rupture of amniotic vesicles and embryonic death. The most common cause of embryonic death is rupture of the heart or the vessels at the base of the heart resulting haemorrhage in into amniotic cavity .

v BIOLOGICAL METHODS :

Ø  Ascheim Zondek (A-Z) Test : This is a biological test utilized for diagnosis of pregnancy in mare.

→ This test is based on FSH like activity of PMSG, present in the blood of pregnant mare.

→ This test is more accurate between days 50-100 post conception.

Ø  Friedman test or Rabbit test

Ø  Progesterone estimation : It can be done in both milk and Serum / Plasma by radio immune assay.

→ The pregnancy diagnosis can be done as early as 18-23 day.

→ The levels higher than 4 ng/ml of milk and 1 ng/ ml of plasma are indicative of pregnancy.

v CHEMICAL METHODS :

Ø  Cuboni Test : This test is used for pregnancy diagnosis in mare.

→ This test involves detection of oestrogen in the urine of mare and can be performed after 150 days of conception.

Ø  Barium chloride test : This test is used for pregnancy diagnosis in cattle and buffalo.

→ It gives more than 90% reliable results.

→ End-products of progesterone (after metabolisation in liver) present in the urine and this prevents precipitation of barium chloride while oestrogens favour precipitation.

→ Clear white precipitation : Non-pregnant.

→ Pregnancy can be diagnosed even at 3 to 4 weeks of gestation.

Ø  Sodium hydroxide test : This test is used for pregnancy diagnosis in cattle and buffalo.

→ Orange colour : Pregnant and Pale colour : Non-pregnant.

Ø  Specific gravity method : This test has more than 90% reliability both in cows and buffaloes.

→ Specific gravity of cervical mucus is increased with progesterone while it is decreased with oestrogens.

→ If mucus sinks : Pregnant and If mucus floats : Non pregnant.

Ø  Seed bio- assay method : This method is used for pregnancy diagnosis both in cows and buffaloes.

→ Germination of wheat or barley is prevented by four-fold rise in concentration of abscicic acid in the pregnant animals.

→ No germination and turn black : Pregnant.

→ 35-60 % germination with moderate shoot length (4 cm.) : Nonpregnant.

Ø  Milk Ejection Test : Early pregnancy diagnosis in cow.

→ To confirm the pregnancy after 20-22 days of insemination.

→ PGF2𝖺 in nonluteolytic dose induces the release of oxytocin from the corpus luteum which causes let-down of milk in the lactating and pregnant cows.

EVIDENCE OF FOETUS LIFE

 

v Interdigital claw reflex : It is stimulated by firmly pinching the inter digital web. Positive response to pedal withdrawal is the sign of life of a foetus.

v Swallowing reflex : It is stimulated by applying pressure on the base of the tongue

v Palpebral reflex : It is stimulated by placing slight pressure on the eyeballs.

v Palpation of heart beat : The heart beat is palpated by passing the hand between the front legs of the foetus and by grasping the sternum from below, preferably with fingers on the left side of the chest wall. The normal heart rate should be about 120 beats/ minute.

v Pulsation in umbilical cord : The umbilical cord can be located by searching the area between the curvature of the last ribs and the flaccid abdomen. During normal parturition, pulse frequency gradually increases from about 90 to 120/ minute.

v Anal reflex : It is stimulated as a constriction of the anal sphincter when a finger is pushed against or into the anus.

INFERTILITY IN FEMALES

v Fertility : Ability of an animal to reproduce maximum within the stipulated time as per the norms of the species is called fertility.

v Infertility : Temporary inability of the arumal to reproduce is called infertility .

v Sub-fertility : Less than normal reproductive capacity is called subfertility .

v Sterility : Permanent inability of an animal to reproduce is called sterility.

v CONGENITAL & HEREDITARY DEFECTS :

1.     Ovarian agenesis : Absence of one or both ovaries. There will be no development of genital organs. It one ovary is there then genital tract development is normal but animal show irregular oestrus cycles.

2.     Ovarian hypoplasia (Hypoplasis - Arrested Development) : It is not sex linked so, gene is expressed in both male & female, due to autosomal recessive gene with incomplete penetration.

Ø  Incomplete penetration of hypoplasia is two types.

A.    Bilateral : Complete or Partial

B.    Unilateral : Complete or Partial

C.     Complete : No ovary, ovary is found as only a fibrous band (difficult to palpate per rectally). So, under development (juvenile or infertile) of genitalia.

D.    Partial : Partial hypoplastic ovaries are more dangerous because a part of ovary is hypoplasized only remaining part of ovary are normal, there will be production of ovum & hormones. These animals can conceive. The gene may spread in the population so these animals should not be allowed for breeding.

Ø  Differential diagnosis with small & underdeveloped ovary : Small ovary is not hypoplastic but if ovary is found harder then only the ovary is hypoplastic.

3.     Segmental hypoplasia of mullarian duct or Paramesonephric duct : Mostly hereditary but may be congenital. Sex linked autosomal recessive genes linked with white coat color gene, so it is common in white colour cattle (also in buffalo) (white heifer disease). There is partial arrested development of paramesonephric duct resulted in developmental defect in tubular portion of reproductive tract, but Ovary development is normal.

Ø  Segmental hypoplasia of uterus (Uterus unicornis or Uterus bicornis).

Ø  Total aplasia / Partial aplasia of single uterus known as Uterus unicornis.

Ø  Segmental hypoplasia of cervix (Uterine didelphus condition common in rabbit).

Ø  Uterus didelphy also known as cervix douplex.

Ø  Cervix duplex : Vagina with two separate cervical canal and two cervical openings Fertility effected at time of parturition.

4.     Free martinism : Sterile heifers that are born co - twin with a male. Free martinism occurs by 30 days of gestation. During this if male fetus dies then also there will be birth of female free martin. Seen in cattle, buffalo, goat & pig, also in sheep but less, not in horse. Distinct from intersexuality due to result of vascular anastomosis of heterozygous fetuses due to which male hormones circulates into female which interferes with normal sex development. As a result external genitallia seems normal but interior undergoes muscularization.

Ø  Clinical symptom : Tuft of hair at inferior cervix and Small vagina reduced to 1/3rd size resemble cui-de-sac straining & terminate at cervix.

Ø  Diagnosis : Chromosome chimerism xxx

5.     White heifer disease (hereditary condition) : Syndrome of straining & illness characterized by variable degree of hymenal constriction generally caused by sex linked recessive gene seen in white coat colour animal.

6.     Persistence of hymen (Partial or Complete) : Constriction is at in front of uterine meatus, So secretion from endometrial glands accumulate in uterus, so bulging (P-R examination) in front of the uterine meatus. Animal is not conceived and no passing of A.I. gun, no discharges due to which bulging of secretions.

v ACQUIRED ANATOMICAL DEFECT :

1.     Ovo bursal adhesion : In this condition passage of ova is blocked, So in bilateral condition animal is completely sterile. Diagnosis done by three tests.

A.    PSP : Phenol sulpha phenolsulphate.

B.    Starch grain McDonald : In starch grain test, we can diagnose whether condition is unilateral or bilateral and purple colour develop.

C.     CO2 insufficiency : CO2 insuffuciency used in human commonly after sealing cervix, CO2 is filled in uterus with pressure of 60 - 100 m.m. Hg. in abnormal fallopian tube. Drop in pressure is slow in unilateral condition.

v FUNCTIONAL CAUSES / ENDROCRINE CAUSES OF INFERTILITY :

1.     Cystic ovarian degeneration : Ovarian cyst any fluid filled structure in absence of Corpus luteum, having diameter more than 2.5 cm (equine) & Persistence for more than 10 days.[exotic Animal]

Ø  Etiology :

→ Lack of LH concentration / Failure of LH secretion : Result in non- ovulation of follicle.

→ Lack of GnRH.

→ Season difference : more in winter high production.

→ Exogenous estrogen & phyto-oestrogen increase.

→ High proteinious diet with low concentration.

→ More seen between 2nd & 5th lactation.

→ High production animal : Decrease the prolactin inhibition

Ø  Classification of ovarian cyst :

A.    Anovulatory cyst or Pathogenic ovarian cyst :

1.     Follicular cysts are anovulatory follicles that persist on the ovary for 10 days or more, have a diameter greater than 2.5 cm. and are usually characterized by nymphomania.

2.     Luteal cyst is anovulatory follicle over 2.5 cm. in diameter that is partially luteinized and persists for a prolonged period and is usually characterized by anoestrus.

B.    Ovulatory cyst or Nonpathogenic ovarian cyst :

1.     Cystic corpora lutea are nonpathogenic ovarian cysts which arise following ovulation and are defined as corpora lutea that contain a fluid filled central cavity of variable size. Cystic corpora lutea are capable of normal progesterone synthesis and do not alter the length of the oestrous cycle.

Ø  Clinical sign of follicular cyst :

→ Sexually aggressive as a bull, so the affected cow is often spoken "Buller cow".

→ In long standing cases of nymphomania, the relaxation of pelvic ligaments cause tipping of the pelvis and elevation of tail-head. This elevated tail head is called sterility hump.

→ The mucus is tougher and more opaque than the mucus of oestrus.

→ In few cases, cystic dilatation of the endometrial glands is so marked that the endometrium developed as swiss-cheese appearance on histological section.

Ø  Clinical sign of luteal cyst : Some of the long-standing cases of luteal cysts develop a masculine body and attempt to mount the other cows but unlike the nymphomaniac cow, they will not stand when being mounted by other cows. This condition is called virilism

Ø  Difference between follicular cyst and luteal cyst :

2.     Anoestrus : Lack of oestrus expression at an expected time.

Ø  Classification of anoestrus :

A.    Functional anoestrus / Apparent anoestrus / Class 2 anoestrus : Presence of functional corpus luteum.

B.    True anoestrus / Class 1 anoestrus : Absence of functional corpus luteum.

→ The ovaries are quiescent, inactive and do not have any functional CL, This condition is referred to as true anoestrus.

3.     Repeat breeder : A cow or buffalo which has normal or nearly normal oestrous cycle and oestrus period and has been bred or artificially inseminated three or more times continuously to a fertile bull or with semen of fertile bull yet failed to conceive, is called a Repeat breeder.

Ø  Failure of fertilization and early embryonic death are two main reasons responsible for repeat breeding syndrome.

v POST-PARTUM INFECTIONS :

Ø  The organism most commonly associated with uterine disease in cattle is Actinomyces pyogens.

Ø  Clostridium spp. occasionally infect the uterus and cause severe gangrenous metritis.

Ø  Classification of post-partum infection period :

1.     Puerperal period : It begins at the time of calving and continues until the pituitary gland becomes sensitive to GnRH at 7 to 14 days postpartum.

→ RFM is a common problem of the early postpartum period which increases the risk of uterine infections.

→ Oxytetracycline is the antibiotic of choice for intrauterine therapy in the puerperal period if there is no septic infection.

2.     Intermediate period : It begins with increased pituitary sensitivity to GnRH and continues until the first post-partum ovulation.

3.     Post ovulatory period : It begins at the time of first ovulation and last until involution is complete. It is about 45 days post-partum in normal cows.

→ Most common diseases occurring in this period are metritis and pyometra.

→ Penicillin is the antibiotic of choice for the treatment in the post-ovulatory period.

v ENDOMETRITIS : Inflammation of endometrium extending not deeper than the stratum spongiosum is called endometritis.

Ø  Classification of endometritis :

1.     Clinical endometritis : When the uterine discharge is thrown by the animal, is mucopurulent, it is called clinical endometritis.

2.     Subclinical endometritis : When the uterine discharge is thrown by the animal is almost clear, but give positive reaction to white side test, this condition is called subclinical endometritis.

Ø  Degree of endometritis :

1.     First degree : On the 3rd or 4th day of A.I., flakes of pus may be observed intra vaginally or within vulvar lips.

2.     Second degree : But on milking out of uterus, the discharge becomes cloudy or dirty.

3.     Third degree : Discharge is mucopurulent especially during oestrus and The genital tract is felt distinctly thick and enlarged.

v RETENTION OF PLACENTA : Retained foetal membranes (RFM) is defined as non separation of the foetal membranes by 12 hours after calving (some authors extend this period to 24 hours).

1.     Primary retention of placenta : The RPM which results from a lack of detachment of cotyledons from the maternal caruncles is called primary retention of placenta.

2.     Secondary retention of placenta : The RPM which results from mechanical difficulty in expelling already detached foetal membranes (eg. uterine atony), is called secondary retention of placenta.

PSEUDOPREGNANCY

 

v In dogs, the clinical condition of overt pseudopregnancy called simply pseudopregnancy, pseudocyesis, false pregnancy or nervous lactation is a syndrome observed in non-pregnant bitches about 6 to 12 weeks after estrus and is characterized by clinical signs such as nesting, weight gain, mammary enlargement and lactation.

v Hence, all non-pregnant dogs in diestrus stage of the cycle are referred to as pseudo pregnant (physiological pseudopregnancy).

v pseudopregnancy may occur as a result of increased concentrations of prolactin or an increased sensitivity to prolactin induced by a more rapid than normal decline of progesterone levels in the late luteal phase.

v Treatment : Steroids such as estrogens, progestins and androgens have been traditionally used to treat pseudopregnancy.

Ø  The dopamine agonists Bromocriptine and Cabergoline are the most common ergot compound.

Ø  Metergoline, an anti-serotonergic veterinary drug marketed for the treatment of pseudopregnancy in bitches in Europe used clinically to inhibit prolactin secretion.

DEVELOPMENTA OF FETUS AND MRP

 

v IMPLANTATION : In animals, the term implantation often refers to the attachment of the placental membranes to the endometrium. True implantation is a phenomenon observed in rodents and humans.

Ø  The conceptus temporarily disappears beneath the surface. This invasive process is accompanied by transformation and proliferation of uterine stromal cells referred to as decidualization.

Ø  This invasive property appears to result from blastocyst production of proteolytic enzymes such as plasminogen activator, but invasive implantation is prevented by uterine epithelial secretion of protease (plasmin/trypsin) inhibitors that coat the blastocyst and protect the uterus from this protease.

Ø  In the sheep, BNGCs first appear at about day 14 and in the cow, between days 18 and 20.

Ø  BNGCs constitute around 20 per cent of the fetal placenta.

Ø  Specialized chorionic girdle cell form around the spherical vesicle, detach around day 35 and invade the uterine endometrium to form the endometrial cups, that produce equine chorionic gonadotrophin.

Animals	Implantation (Days after conception)
Cow	22 – 35 Days
Mare	36 – 38 days
Ewe	16 – 18 Days
Sow	13 – 20 Days

 

v MATERNAL REGONIZATION OF PREGNANCY : Establishment of pregnancy involves interactions between two interdependent systems defined as uterus, and conceptus (embryo and extra embryonic membranes).

Ø  This signal is necessary for corpus luteum (CL) maintenance, production of progesterone and continued endometrial development and secretory activity.

Ø  This phenomenon was described by Short (1969) as “Maternal Recognition of Pregnancy” (MRP) .

 

 

Species	Day of MRP	Day of definite Attachment	Molecule involved
Cow	16-17	18-22	bTP-1
Ewe	12-13	16	OTP – 1
Mare	14-16	36-38	Estrogen and proteins
Sow	12	18	Estrogen

 

Ø  Maternal recognition of pregnancy & interferon (antiviral) protein produced by trophoblast & cut on endometrial cells which inhibit PGF2α production from arachidonic acid & there is increase production of linolic acid & other prostaglandin PGE2 & occur at 15-16 days of conception, otherwise embryo get dried because of this C.L. is maintained & estrus cycle disturbs.

Ø  If early embryonic death occurs after maternal recognition of pregnancy the oestrous cycle will be prolonged (characteristic of Tritrichomonas fetus infection).

v PRE - ATTACHEMENT DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO :

Ø  TOTAL PREGNANCY DIVIDED IN 3 PERIOD :

Ø  Period of ovum or blastula : It is the period during which the conceptus sheds its zona pellucida and transforms to blastocyst. It is the period upto 10-12 days after fertilization in cows.

Ø  Period of embryo : It is the period between blastocyst and organogenesis. During this period, major tissues, organs and systems of the body are formed and changes in body shape occur so that by the end of this period, the species of the embryo is readily recognizable. It extends from 13th to 45th day of pregnancy in cow.

Ø  Period of foetus : It is the period during which most of the growth of placenta and foetus takes place and lasts until parturition.

Animals	Period of ovum’s	Period of embryo	Period of foetus
Cow	From Fertilization to 10 – 12 da	From 13 to 45 days	From 46 days to calving
Ewe	From Fertilization to 10 days	From 11 to 34 days	From 36 days to lambing
Mare	From Fertilization to 11 days	From 12 to 55 -60 days	From 56 days to foaling

 

Ø  Fertilization results in the formation of male and female nuclei and cell is called an ootid, the largest single cell in the body.

Ø  Fusion of the male and female pronuclei (Syngamy) occurs and the single-celled embryo is now called a zygote.

Ø  The zygote undergoes a series of mitotic divisions called cleavage divisions dividing the embryo into cells each of which are called blastomeres.

Ø  In the early stages of embryogenesis, each blastomeres has the potential to develop into separate healthy offspring, a property called totipotency.

Ø  Totipotency is a term used to describe the ability of a single cell (blastomere) to give rise to a complete, fully formed individual.

Ø  When the resultant embryo is a solid ball of cells where individual blastomeres can no longer be counted accurately, the early embryo is called a morula.

Ø  The outer cells of the morula develop cell-to-cell adhesions known as tight junctions.

Ø  As the ionic strength inside the morula increases, water diffuses through the zona pellucida into the embryo and begins to form a fluid filled cavity called a blastocele. The embryo is now called a blastocyst.

Ø  The embryo becomes partitioned into two distinct cellular populations :

1.     The inner cell mass will give rise to the body of the embryo.

2.     The trophoblastic cells will become the fetal component of the placenta.

DEVELOPMENTAL FETAL MEMBRANE

 

v The dramatic growth of the conceptus is due largely to development of a set of membranes called the extraembryonic membranes.

v The pig, sheep and cow are characterized as having filamentous or threadlike blastocysts prior to attachment.

v In the mare, however, blastocysts do not change into a thread like structure but remain spherical.

v As the hatched blastocyst begins to grow, it develops an additional layer called primitive endoderm just beneath, At the same time, it also forms an evagination at the ventral portion of the inner cell mass to form the yolk sac.

v As the blastocyst continues to expand, the newly formed double membrane (the trophoblast and mesoderm) becomes the chorion.

v The chorion begins to send “wing-like” projections above the embryo, the amnion begins to form.

v During the same time that the amnion is developing, a small evagination from the posterior region of the primitive gut begins to form. This sac-like evagination is referred to as the allantoic sac.

v When the allantois reaches a certain volume, it presses against the chorion and eventually fuses with it. When fusion takes place the two membranes are called the allanto-chorion.

v YOLK SAC : From endoderm.

Ø  Provide nutrients (Uterine milk) in very early stage.

v AMNION : From trophoderm (by fusion of ectoderm and mesoderm) folding around the embryo form amnionic cavity containing amnionic fluid.

Ø  Amnionic fluid is turgid at early stage, suspends and protects embryo and fetus.

Ø  The inner layer of this double-walled sac is the "true amnion" and the outer layer is the "false amnion".

Ø  In the bovine amnion, on the inner surface there are small 1/16 inch, irregular shaped flat, white, elevated epithelial thickenings called Amniotic plaques.

Ø  Amnion facilitates expulsion of fetus.

v ALLANTOIS : From endoderm and mesoderm.

Ø  Allantois cavity containing fluids high in waste products.

Ø  Allantoic fluid is composed of hypotonic urine, maintains the osmotic pressure of the fetal plasma and prevents fluid loss to maternal circulation.

v CHORION : From trophoderm

Ø  Outer layer of extraembryonic membranes.

v ALLANTO-CHORION : attached to endometrium forming placenta.

PLACENTA

 

v DEFINITION : It is a unique organ that develops in mammalians for the development of the fetus.

v It is an apposition of fetal membranes to the endometrium to permit physiological exchange between the fetus and the mother.

v The placenta is composed of two parts :

1.     The fetal placenta or allantois chorion

2.     The maternal placenta or endometrium.

v The yolk sac or amniotic chorion act as primitive placenta for a few weeks in the early embryonic period.

v Allantois develop as a diverticulum of hind gut and fuses with the chorion (trophoblastic capsule of the blastocyst) to form the chorioallantoic placenta.

v Functions of Placenta : Nutrition, Exchange of waste material, Secretion of enzyme & hormone and barrier to infection.

v TYPES OF PLACENTA :

A.    According to loss of maternal tissue at parturition

1.     Desidual or Conjoined : Placenta of the bitch and cat.

2.     Non desidual or Adecidute : In other domestic animals there is no shedding of tissues during expulsion placenta.

B.    According to anatomy or distribution of villi on the fetal chorion

1.     Cotyledonary : Villi are grouped into multiple circumscribed areas. Ex. ruminant (bovine convex surface, ovine or caprine concave).

Ø  Chorionic villi are clumped together in to well-developed circular regions known as cotyledons.

Ø  These cotyledons develop only in those regions of the chorion that overlie predetermined aglandular areas of the endometrium known as the caruncles.

Ø  The fetal cotyledon and maternal caruncle unite to form a placentome.

Ø  The endometrium between the caruncles is called the inter caruncular endometrium and the fetal placenta between the cotyledons is called the inter Cotyledonary placenta.

2.     Diffuse : Villi are uniformly distributed on the fetal chorion, except on cervical part. Ex. mare, pig, & camel.

3.     Zonary : Villi are present in the form of a broad encircling belt. Ex. dog , cat, elephant.

Ø  It may be complete, as in dog and cat, or incomplete, as in bears, seals and mustelids.

4.     Discoidal : Disc-shaped area on chorionic sac. Ex. primates, human, bat.

Ø  The chorionic disc may be single (man) or double (monkey).

C.     According to histology

1.     Epiteliochorion : Equine, pig, camel, bovine, ovine, sheep.

2.     Syndesmochorion : Bovine.

3.     Endotheliochorion : Cat and Dog.

4.     Haemochorion : Primates, human , rodent.

PARTURITION

 

v DEFINITION : It is the physiological process by which the pregnant, uterus delivers fetus and fetal membranes.

v SIGN APPROACHING PARTURITION :

Ø  In mare waxing of teat is sign of approaching to parturition (6 – 48 Hrs. before foaling).

Ø  Waxing : Oozing of milk from teat of mare in parturition.

v STAGES OF PARTURITION :

1.     1st : Dilation of cervix.

Ø  Average duration : 2-6 hours and Uterine contractions: 1/15 min.

Ø  Adrenaline blocks the action of oxytocin if there is any disturbance in dilation of cervix is there.

Ø  Due to contractions of uterus chorio-allantois membrane (1^st or False water bag) is forced out and ruptures to release allantoic fluid.

2.     2nd : Expulsion of fetus.

Ø  Average duration : 1/2-1 hour and Uterine contractions : 4-8/10 min.

Ø  Amnion (second or true water bag) appears as a translucent bag and rupture to release amniotic fluid.

Ø  Fergusson’s reflex, Oxytocin release and Uterine contraction.

Ø  In polytochus species second stage cannot be separated from the third stage.

3.     3rd : Expulsion of fetal membrane.

Ø  Average duration : 1/2-8 hours and Uterine contractions: variable

Ø  Associated with uterine contractions under influence of oestrogen and oxytocin.

Ø  Involution of uterus is sometimes also called as fourth stage of parturition.

 

DYSTOCIA

 

v EUTOCIA refers to safe, easy, natural, or physiological parturition.

v DYSTOCIA (Greek terminology) refers to difficulty in birth.

v More common in pluripara than in primipara and is more frequent with twins than with still births.

v SPECIES DIFFERENCE :

Ø  Bovine : More prone.

Ø  Bitch : Breed difference.

Ø  Ewe : Incidence common when twin is there.

Ø  Mare & sow : Less occur.

Ø  In bitch & sow : Maternal dystokia (common).

Ø  In horse, Cow, Ewe : Foetal dystokia.

v DIFFERENT FORMS OF DYSTOCIA :

Ø  Cow : Foetal oversize is common.

→ Emphysematous foetus.

→ Monster like achondroplastic calves.

→ Indistinct uterine body, So transverse presentation is very less in cow than the mare.

→ Deviation of head are more common in cow. Uterine inertia due to hypocalcemia.

→ Uterine torsion is common.

Ø  Mare : Mainly due to defect in posture, presentation & position.

→ Disproportion & uterine inertia are rare.

→ Transverse presentation 1 in 1000 cases.

→ Dog-sitting posture (obliquely vertical) is characteristic to mares.

→ Deviation of neck is involved commonly in twist of cervical spine due to long neck of foetus of mare.

→ Foot Nape pasture (Foot over neck).

→ Bilateral flexon are common.

→ Bicornual gestation due to large uterine body in mare.

Ø      Ewe : Foeto pelvic disproportion is most common.

→ Maldispositoion : shoulder flexion commonest

Ø  Sow & Bitch : Maternal dystokia are more common primarily of uterine inertia.

→ Lodging of foetus and obstruction of birth canal is peculiar to sow.

→ Downward deviation of uterus itself.

→ Breech presentation is common in cow & sow.

→ Large head breed in Seamlhiham & Terrior scotish.

→ Downward deviation of head vertex.

→ Lateral deviation of head presentation.

PRESENTATION, POSITION AND POSTURE OF FOETUS

 

v PRESENTATION : It is relationship between longitudinal axis of dam with the longitudinal axis of foetus and parts present towards birth canal. The presentation may be divided into three parts :

1.     Longitudinal presentation : When longitudinal axis of dam is parallel to the longitudinal axis of vertebral column of foetus, the presentation is called longitudinal presentation

2.     Transverse presentation : When longitudinal axis of foetus forms a right angle with the long axis of dam in transverse plane, the presentations is called as transverse presentation.

3.     Vertical presentation : When longitudinal axis of foetus forms the right angle with long axis of dam in vertical plane, the presentation is called vertical presentation.

v POSITION : It is the relationship between vertebral column of foetus with the four quadrants of pelvic inlet of the dam.

v POSTURE : It is relationship between movable appendages of foetus with its own body.

v The normal presentation in a uniparous animal is the anterior longitudinal presentation, dorso-sacral position with the head resting on the metacarpal bones and knees of the extended forelegs.

v The transverse presentation is seen only rarely in ruminants and multipara.

v The transverse presentation can occur in the mare in which the foetus develops in both the uterine horns rather than the uterine body and one horn.

v Posterior longitudinal presentation in a multiparous animal is considered normal or physiological.

UTERINE INERTIA

 

v DEFINITION : The expulsive force of labour comprises the contractions of the uterine and abdominal muscles.

1.     Primary uterine inertia : Implies an original deficiency in the contractile potential of the myometrium.

Ø  It is less common than secondary uterine inertia and is seen most often in the dog and sow, occasionally in cow but rarely in other species.

Ø  Dachson & Aberden carrier breeds are well known breed for primary uterine inertia.

2.     Secondary uterine inertia : This usually follows a prolonged dystocia and is characterized by exhaustion of the uterine muscles.

Ø  More common in large animals.

Ø  Secondary uterine inertia is frequently followed by retention of fetal membranes and retarded uterine involution.

UTERINE TORSION

 

v UTERINE TORSON : Rotation or Revolution or twisting of the uterus on its long axis.

v In (unipara) large animal (S/G/C/B) : Both horns are involved in utrine torsion because intercornual ligament is present.

v In multiparous animal generally single horn is rotated because intercornual ligament is absent.

v INCIDENCE :

Ø  Most common in cattle and buffalo, Occasionally in mare, ewe, doe and bitch and Rare in sow.

Ø  Breed : More in surti than other buffalo breeds due to wallowing habit.

Ø  Torsion is rare in mare (broad ligament is attached dorsally to uterus) & bitch.

Ø  90% of torsion at 1st time pregnancy, and diagnosed at the time of 1st or 2nd stage of labour sign.

Ø  Lameness causing disease like FMD. Usually seen in advance gestation of more than 5 months. Commonest at last 1st labour stage or early 2nd labour stage. But not uncommon in early pregnancy.

Ø  The incidence of torsion is more common in pluriparous animals than in primiparous animals and is thought to be associated with a lack of uterine tone.

v DEGREE OF TORSION :

Ø  1st degree : 90:

Ø  2nd degree : 180:

Ø  3rd degree : 270:

Ø  4th degree : 360: (Complete torsion)

v Direction of torsion :

1.     Clockwise or Right side torsion : Right torsion is more common.

Ø  On rectal examination : The ligament and middle uterine artery (MUA) on the right side is stretched and pulled vertically downward under the uterus, whereas the ligament on the left side is stretched and pulled tightly across the top of the uterine body.

2.     Counter clockwise or Left side torsion :

Ø  On rectal examination : The ligament and MUA on the left side is stretched and pulled vertically downward under the uterus, whereas the ligament on the right side is stretched and pulled tightly across the top of the uterine body.

v Site of torsion :

1.     Pre-cervical (posterior part of uterine body) : Involvement of uterus.

Ø  Cervix is palpable and fetus is not palpable.

2.     Post-cervical (anterior vagina) : Involvement of vagina.

Ø  Cervix is not palpable with abrupt closing of the vagina.

v If the torsion is greater than 180°, it is usually impossible to pass the hand through the twisted portion of the birth canal.

v If the torsion is less than 180°, the obstetrician's hand may be passed through the birth canal to pal pate the foetus.

v Dorsal commissure of the vulva is pulled forward and left in case of left torsion and forward and right in case of right torsion (270: to 360:).

v TREATMENT : Rolling of dam and Modified Schaffer’s method.

CERVICO – VAGINAL PROLAPSE

 

v VAGINAL PROLAPSE : Protrusion of the whole or part of vagina through the vulva is called vaginal prolapse.

v Seen in last trimester in every spp. In S/G - before few weeks of pregnancy. Bitch (dog) – at oestrus period.

v CLASSIFICATION OF VAGINAL PROLAPSE :

1.     First-degree prolapse : The floor of the vagina protrudes intermittently through the vulva, usually only when the cow is lying down; but disappears when she stands up, is called first degree prolapse.

2.     Second-degree prolapse : The prolapse in which the floor of vagina is in continuous prolapse even when the cow stands up is called second degree prolapse.

3.     Third-degree prolapse : The prolapse in which both the cervix and almost the entire vagina remain protruded is called third degree prolapse.

4.     Fourth - degree prolapse : Second or third degree prolapse that has been exposed for a long period and necrosis and fibrosis has occurred, is called fourth degree prolapse.

v The prolapse of vagina in the bitches is seen most commonly at the time of oestrum unlike bovines.

v SURGICAL TECHNIQUES TO REPAIR CERVICO – VAGINAL PROLAPSE :

1.     Elevation of the rear quarters is the most practical method in cattle

2.     Vulvar tape retention sutures.

3.     Buried or "Hidden" purse string type suture : It is used for the vulva following replacement of a prolapsed vagina described by Pierson, Arthur (1966) and Woelffer.

Ø  This technique may be used in chronic post-partum prolapse as well as prepartum prolapse.

4.     Buhner's method.

5.     Modified Caslick operation

6.     Minchev's method : Surgically fastening the cranial portion of the vaginal wall through the lesser sciatic foramen to the dorso-lateral wall of the sacrosciatic ligament, muscles and skin of the croup.

7.     Winkler's method : Fixation of the cervix to the prepubic tendon.

8.     Farquharson method : Submucous resection of the edematous and devitalised mucous membrane.

9.     Guard and Frank technique : Removal of large amounts of perivaginal fat by incising the dorsal wall of the vagina.

v PROLAPSE OR EVERSION OF THE UTERUS : It is also called casting of "wethers" or casting of the "calf- bed". It occurs immediately after parturition or occasionally upto several hours or days afterwards.

FOETAL MUMMIFICATION

 

v DEFINITION : "The process in which a foetus dies within the uterus, autolysis occurs without putrefaction and the remaining shrivelled mass of bones gets usually enclosed in wrinkled brown skin is known as foetal mummification."

v Foetal mummification does not occur in the first trimester of pregnancy because embryonic or foetal death occurring before the development of foetal bones is absorbed.

v SUSCEPTIBLE ANIMALS : Foetal mummification is commonly found in cattle and pigs than sheep, horses, dogs and cats.

v ETIOLOGY OF FOETAL MUMMIFICATION :

1.     Bovines : Genetic and chromosomal abnormalities (common in Jersey breed of cattle). It may be due to torsion of umbilical cord or compression of the umbilical cord. Hence, blood supply is obstructed and the foetus dies.

2.     Swine : Viruses like porcine parvovirus (PPV), porcine enterovirus (PEV), Japanese B encephalitis virus etc.

3.     Ewe : Foetal mummification is generally found with twins or triplets when one of the embryos has died.

4.     Bitch : In the bitch, foetal mummification is a characteristic of canine herpes virus infection.

5.     Queen : It is not uncommon in cat and is assumed to be due to uterine overcrowding.

v TYPES OF FOETAL MUMMIFICATION : There are two types of foetal mummification.

1.     Haematic mummification : This type of mummification is found in cattle. After the foetal death, involution of caruncles occur which result in variable amount of haemorrhage between the endometrium and foetal membranes. A functional corpus luteum is a cardinal feature of the condition.

2.     Papyraceous mummification : This type of mummification is generally found in the sow, bitch and cat. In this type of mummification, placental haemorrhage does not occur, so there is no reddish-brown staining of the foetal membranes. The mummified foetus is usually brownish in colour. Here, foetal fluid is absorbed and foetal membranes become shrivelled and dried, so that it resemble a parchment.

v TREATMENT :

1.     Administration of PGF2𝖺analogue : Lutalyse (Dinoprost) 5 ml IM

2.     Administration of oestradiol valerate : Progynon-depot (oestradiol valerate) 1 ml IM

FOETAL MACERATION

 

v DEFINITION : The process in which a foetus dies after ossification within the uterus and the foetus undergoes microbial digestion or putrefaction in the fluid of uterus till only the mass of bones remains, is known as maceration.

v Foetal maceration can occur in any species, but it is described most frequently in cattle.

v On per rectal examination : Metallic sound or gritty feeling due to sliding movement of bones on each other after complete maceration of foetus.

v Oxytocin should not be given in case of maceration because it increases the contractibility of the uterus.

v CERVICAL RELAXATION : Epidosin vet (Valethamate bromide) 5 ml IM

HYDROALLANTOSIS AND HYDROAMNIOS

 

HYDROALLANTOIS : Hydrops of the allantois	HYDRAMNIOS : Hydrops amnios
·       Due to defective placenta (the chorio- allantois) and Twin pregnancies in cows.	·       Due to a defective calf, (bulldog calf in the dexter) with a defect in swallowing.
·       The fetus is normal but the placenta is thick.	·       The placenta is normal.
·       The condition is characterized by a rapid accumulation of watery, clear amber fluid, usually in the last trimester.	·       The condition is characterized by a gradual accumulation of thick, viscid serum like fluid during the last half of gestation.
·       The cow is rounded in the caudal view, and you normally can't palpate the fetus or placentomes.	·       The cow has a pear shaped caudal view. Usually you can palpate the fetus and placentomes.
·       Usually the condition results in a sick cow with anorexia, decreased rumen motility, dehydration and weakness.	·       The cow is clinically otherwise unaffected.
·       If the cow survives, postpartum metritis is common.	·       Postpartum metritis is uncommon.
·       The condition usually ends in death or intervention.	·       The pregnancy usually goes to term, and frequently a small, deformed fetus is delivered.
·       The prognosis is guarded to poor for life and fertility.	·       The prognosis is good for life and fertility.
·       Treatment consists of Caesarian section with a slow drainage of fluid and perioperative support. Dexamethasone can be used if the cow is not down.	·       No treatment is required. The cow may be allowed to go to term or induced to calve.

 

MUTATION

v MUTATION : It is defined as those operations by which a foetus is returned to a normal presentation, position and posture by repulsion, rotation, version and adjustment of flexed extremity.

1.     Repulsion or Retropulsion : This consists of pushing the foetus forward into the uterus from the birth canal to make adequate space for the correction of position and posture. This is done either with operator's arm or with the help of some instruments like Kuhn's crutch repeller.

2.     Rotation : It is the turning of foetus on its long axis to bring the foetus into dorso-sacral position (anterior presentation) or lumbo-sacral position (posterior presentation). Different detorsion rods can be used for this purpose like Cammerer's torsion fork

3.     Version : It is rotation of foetus on its transverse axis into an anterior or posterior presentation. It is done by long handle eye hook or hand alone or Kuhn's crutch. • Version includes two important movements- repulsion and evolution.

4.     Extension and adjustment of the extremities : "The correction of abnormal posture of head, neck and limbs of the foetus is called extension or adjustment of the extremities.

5.     Force traction or extraction : The withdrawal of foetus from birth canal of the dam by application of force is called force traction.

FOETOTOMY

 

v FOETOTOMY (EMBRYOTOMY) : Removal or division of certain parts of foetus to reduce the size of the foetus is called foetotomy.

v Foetotomy is used most commonly in cattle, occasionally in horses, rarely in sheep and goats and almost never in pigs and small animals.

1.     Complete foetotomy : When a whole foetus is divided into small pieces, the operation is known as complete foetotomy.

2.     Incomplete foetotomy : When a small part of the foetus is removed, the operation is known as incomplete foetotomy.

v Two techniques of foetotomy are in practice :

1.     Subcutaneous foetotomy : Removal of decorticated limb (skinless limb) to reduce the size of foetus is called subcutaneous foetotomy.

2.     Percutaneous foetotomy : Removal or division of certain parts of the foetus along with skin to reduce the size of foetus is called percutaneous foetotomy.

v Some terminology used in foetotomy operation :

Ø  Decapitation : It is the separation of head at the atlantlo-occipital joint.

Ø  Decollation : It is the separation of neck at the greatest curvature (i.e. the base of neck).

Ø  Cephalotomy : Reducing the size of cranium by simple puncture, incision or crushing of the cranial envelope.

Ø  Detruncation : Division of body.

Ø  Evisceration (eventration) : The process by which the volume of thoracic and abdominal cavity is reduced by removing their organs.

GLOSSARY

 

v Gynaecology : (From Greek, gynae means woman and logos means discourse or study). It pertains to the diseases of the female, but the term is generally used for diseases related to the female genital

organs. "A branch of science which deals with the study of physiopathology of reproduction, infective and non-infective conditions of genital tract affecting efficiency of reproduction is called Gynaecology" .

v Theriogenology : (Greek word 'therio = animal or beast and gen = coming into). The branch of science which deals with all aspects of veterinary obstetrics, genital diseases and animal reproduction, is called theriogenology. The term was first proposed by D. Bartlett and others.

v Reproduction : "Reproduction is the ability of all living organisms to produce young ones similar to themselves in most of the characters". Reproduction is a luxury function of the body not physiologically necessary for life of the individual and usually not performed until the animal reaches nearly to adult size.

v Obstetrics : (Latin word means/midwife'). The branch of science which deals with the care of female during gestation, parturition and puerperium is called obstetrics.

v Caesarean section : The delivery of the foetus usually at parturition by laparohysterotomy called caesarean section. The word caesarean is said to derive either from an edict by Julius Caesar that woman was about to die in advanced child birth and this operation was performed to save the child or from the Latin word caeso matris utera means cutting of mother's uterus.

v Nullipara : Females that never conceived or carried young are called nullipara.

v Primipara : Females that have conceived and have had only one gestation period are called primipara.

v Pluripara : Females that have conceived two or more times and have had two or more gestation periods are called plUripara.

v Adolescent sterility : Full reproductive efficiency is not attained in any species at the first oestrus or ejaculation. This is a period of adolescent sterility. This period is remarkably short (some weeks) in domestic animals as compared with humans (1 year or more).

v Folliculogenesis : The process whereby immature follicles develop into more advanced follicles and become candidates for ovulation is referred to as folliculogenesis.

v Pseudomenstruation : Several domestic animals shed blood from their uteri at certain phase of the oestrous cycle. This phenomenon is called pseudomenstruation.

v Copulation or Coitus : The insertion of erected penis into the vagina and subsequent ejaculation of semen is called copulation.

v Calling : It is the term used to describe the vocalization of the queen (cat) when she is in heat.

v Flagging : In case of stallion when intromission is achieved, ejaculation takes place over a period of a few minutes. During this time the tail of stallion is lifted up and down. This is called flagging.

v Yellow body : The mature corpus luteum (CL) of the cow contains a yellow lipochrome pigment which gives a light brown to yellow appearance. Because of this colouration, the CL is frequently referred to as the 'yellow body'. As the CL ages and begins degeneration, the colour darkens until it finally becomes deep orange to brown.

v 'Dyspareunia : Painful or difficult coitus is called dyspareunia.

v Oogenesis or Ovogenesis : Formation and development of the egg or ovum which begin from the embryonic stage and is completed when a spermatozoon penetrates the zona pellucida is called oogenesis OR Formation of ova from oogonia is called oogenesis.

v Ovulation : The process whereby a secondary oocyte (Primary oocyte in bitch and mare) is released from the ovary following rupture of a mature Graaffian follicle and becomes available for fertilization is called ovulation.

v Fertilization : The process of fusion of a sperm with a mature ovum is called fertilization. It begins with sperm-egg collision and ends with formation of mononucleated single cell (zygote).

v Zona reaction : When sperm come in contact with zona pellucida, their head secrete acrosin (or zonalysin) enzymes which dissolve the zona pellucida and a sperm penetrates the zona pellucida. After entry of sperm to zona pellucida, some changes occur in the ovum which prevent entry of rest of the spermatozoa, called zona reaction.

v Vitelline block : At the time of contact between sperm and vitelline membrane, a reaction occurs in the membrane, which makes it unresponsive to other sperm, called vitelline block.

v Supernumerary sperm : The extra sperm which succeed in entering the vitelline membrane, inspite of both zona reaction and vitelline block are called supernumerary sperm.

v Polyspermy : The condition in which more than one sperm get entry in the ovum, is called polyspermy.

v Polygyny : The condition in which incomplete maturation of egg occurs due to failure to expel the second polar body resulting in a triploid zygote after fertilization is called polygyny.

v Embryology : The study of the physiological development and growth of prenatal individual, is called embryology.

v Zona hatching : The process in which a blastocyst hatches or escapes from the zona pellucida in the uterus, is called zona hatching.

v Intrauterine migration and spacing : Intrauterine migration and spacing of embryo or conceptus occurs in uterus for the survival of embryo in polytocous species.

v Trophoblast or Trophoectoderm : Differentiation of two distinct cell populations occur after blastocyst formation. The single peripheral layer of cells is termed as trophoblast or trophoectoderm. Later in development, the trophoblast forms chorion.

v Embryoblast or Inner cell mass : A group of cells residing at one pole beneath the trophoblastis called embryoblastor inner cell mass, which develops into three primary germ layers of embryo (ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm) during the process of gastrulation.

v Uterine milk or Histotrophe : The uterine glands under the influence of oestrogen and progesterone secrete "uterine milk" which is composed of protein, fat and traces of glycogen, give nourishment to embryo.

v Maternal recognition of pregnancy (MRP) : The critical period before the attachment of conceptus to the endometrium, trophoectoderm secretes a substance (interferon tau) which prolongs the life span of the cyclic corpus luteum beyond the period of the oestrous cycle. This phenomenon is called MRP.

v Progesterone block : Under the influence of progesterone, the uterine endometrium releases very little PGF2a. and appears insensitive to oestrogen or oxytocin stimulation. This phenomena is called "Progesterone block".

v Ovine trophoblast protein (oTP-l) or ovine interferon tau (oIFN ) : The ewe conceptus synthesizes and secretes an antiluteolytic product between days 12 and 21 of pregnancy called oTP-1 or oIFN- t.

v Gestation or Pregnancy : The condition of female characterized by presence of developing unborn young in the uterus is called pregnancy.

v Gestation period : It is the period from fertilization to parturition.

v Telogony : It is the misconception that a pure bred animal mated accidentally by a mongrel may never breed true again. Believed occasionally by some dog & horse breeders.

v Conception rate : Percentage of cows becoming pregnant after first service. It should be around 60% for chilled semen and 45-50% for frozen semen.

v Number of services per conception : It is the average number of services required for one conception. It should be 1.5 services per conception.

v Non-return rate : Number or percentage of cows not observed for oestrus after A.1.

v Calving rate : Percentage of cows giving normal birth after first A.1.

v Calving interval : The time interval between two successive calvings is called calving interval.

v Service period : The period between calving to fertile oestrus is called service period.

v Parity : It refers to the number of complete gestations (include the delivery of term or near term foetuses).

v Pseudocyesis : The onset of lactation without parturition is called pseudocyesis. Generally, lactation without pregnancy in a bitch, is commonly referred to as pseudopregnancy by most of the owners and veterinary practioners. Actually pseudopregnancy is a misleading name for this because the bitch does not show signs of pregnancy but is only lactating.

v Lochia : The normal uterine discharge during the first three-weeks after parturition, which consists of mucus, detritus and blood initially and later becomes serous, is called lochia.

v Involution : The process by which the uterus returns to its non-pregnant size within specified time after parturition is known as involution of the uterus.

v Still-birth : Expulsion of dead foetus at tlle time of parturition, is called still-birth.

v Premature birth : Expulsion of live foetus before completion of gestation period.

v Abortion : The expulsion of dead foetus of recognizable size from the uterus before full term of gestation, is called abortion.

v Endometrium, Myometrium and Perimetrium : The tunicae mucosa, muscularis and serosa of the uterine wall are commonly called endometrium, myometrium and perimetrium.

v Endosalpinx : The mucosa of the oviduct is called endosalpinx.

v Middle uterine artery : It is a large branch of the internal iliac artery which supplies blood to most of the uterus.

v Cervical Star : An irregular spot on'the chorion found over the internal os of the cervix of mare, is called cervical star. It is constituted by necrotic tips of the chorion found at the apices of the chorioallantois.

v Hippomanes : Amorphous, semisolid, amber-coloured, irregular shaped masses or bodies commonly found floating in the allontoic fluid are called hippomanes. Hippomanes are allontoic calculi.

v Teratology : The division of embryology and pathology dealing with abnormal development and malformation of the antenatal individual is called teratology.

v Teratogens : The non-genetic anomalies or monsters are caused by a variety of environmental factors or agents. These agents are called teratogens.

v Anomaly : If the malformation involves only an organ or part of the body, it is called an anomaly.

v Monster : If the deformity or malformation is extensive, the animal is called monster.

v Intersex : An individual having some of the characteristics of both the sexes and therefore showing abnormalities of sexual development, is called intersex.

v Chimeras : A chimera is an individual composed of two or more types of cells, each type arising from a different source and containing different chromosome constitutions. This condition is called chimerism. Especially in livestock, a chimera containing cells derived from two different zygotes. This usually arises due to fusion between placentas during pregnancy and subsequent anastomosis of the foetal blood circulations. Free-martin is an example of chimera.

v Mosaic : Mosaic is an individual consists of two genetically different cell types containing different chromosome constitutions but both derived from the same zygote. This condition is called mosaicism. A mosaic usually results from mitotic non-disjunction in a single zygote.

v True hermaphrodite : An individual having both testis and ovary or ovotestes, is called true hermaphrodite.

v Pseudohermaphrodite : An individual having gonads of only one sex (either ovary or testis) but external genitalia and secondary characters of opposite sex is called pseudohermaphrodite. Male pseudohermaphrodite: An individual having testes but phenotypically resembles to female, is called male pseudohermaphrodite.

v Female pseudohermaphrodite : An individual having ovaries but phenotypically resembles to male, is called female pseudohermaphrodite.

v Twins : The two individuals that are born at the same time and from the same parents are called twins.

v Monozygotic or Identical twins : In this type, twins are derived from a single zygote that divides at an early stage of embryonic development. They are of the same sex and genetically identical.

v Dizygotic or Fraternal twins : In this type, twins are developed from separate zygotes during the same oestrous cycle. Fused or Siamese twins: These are monozygotic twins which result from the incomplete division of a single embryo.

v Schistosoma reflexus : The monster in which acute angulation of vertebral column takes place causing dorsal approximation of head and tail. The main defect is in skeleton. The thoracic and abdominal tunics are absent or incomplete ventrally exposing the visceral contents.

v Perosomus elumbis : The monster in which vertebrae and spinal cord is absent after the thoracic region to tail. Therefore, the pelvis remains deformed, small and flattened and the hind limbs are strongly ankylosed and flexed. There is also muscular atrophy of lumbar and sacral regions with rigidity of joints.

v Hydrocephalus : Hydrocephalus monster is characterized by swelling of cranium due to accumulation of fluid in the ventricular system (internal hydrocephalus) or between the duramater and brain (external hydrocephalus ).

v Polysarcia or Lard claves : Polysarcia is the accumulation of excessive quantities of fat in the subcutaneous tissues.

v Wryneck : A congenital deformity in which the head and neck are fixed in flexion due to ankylosis of the cervical vertebrae, arises during the peculiar bicornual gestation of solipeds.

v Obturator paralysis : Injury to the obturator nerve generally observed after correction of hip lock in anterior presentation, characterized by the paralysis of adductor muscles of thigh.

v Peroneal paralysis : Due to injury or trauma of peroneal nerve during struggle to rise (peroneal nerve passes over the dorsolateral condyle of tibia & fibula) resulting knuckling of the fetlock and dropping of the hock, and difficulty in rising, standing and walking.

v Episiotomy : The technique to incise the vulva to increase its diameter for safe delivery is called episiotomy.

v Butt or Poll or Vertex posture : The downward displacement of head in which foetus nose is towards the trachea and the poll is presented at the pelvic inlet in anterior presentation and dorsosacral position is called vertex posture.

v Nape posture (nape means back or hind part of neck) : The downward displacement of head in which the head is flexed more than vertex posture so strongly that not only the poll but also the part of

nape of neck is presented at the pelvic inlet in anterior presentation and dorsosacral position is called nape posture.

v True breast-head posture : The downward displacement of the head in which the entire head of the foetus gets dropped down between the fore limbs in anterior presentation and dorso-sacral position, is called true breast-head posture.

v Foot-nape posture : The upward displacement of one or both expanded fore limbs so that the limbs come to lie above the extended head in the vagina in anterior presentation and dorso-sacral position, is called foot-nape posture. It is common in horse.

v Breech presentation : The bilateral hip flexion i.e. both hind limbs are retained in the uterus in posterior presentation and lumbo-sacral position, is called 'breech presentation'.

v Dog-sitting position : Anterior presentation with rear legs extended beneath the foetus called 'Dog- sitting' posture (Roberts).

Ø  It is oblique ventro-vertical presentation in which the foetal head, neck and forelimbs are in the vagina accompanied by the distal extremities of both hindlimbs.

Ø  This form of dystocia is seen very occasionally in the mare and extremely rare in the cow.

Ø  Roberts considers that the dog-sitting posture is an abnormal posture of anterior presentation while almost all other authors (Arthur, Jackson, Benesh and Wright etc.) consider it as oblique ventro-vertical presentation.

v Foetal anasarca : The excess amounts of fluid in the tissue beneath the skin of foetus, is called foetal anasarca.

v Hypoplasia of ovary : Failure of migration of primordial germ cells from the yolk sac to the developing gonad during embryonic stage is the cause of hypoplasia of ovary.

v Apparent anoestrus : When the ovaries have corpus luteum or Graafian follicles but show anoestrus, then the condition is called apparent anoestrus.

v Embryonic mortality : When the  death of conceptus occurs before the completion  of embryonic period, it is called embryOnic mortality.

v Pneumovagina : Aspiration of air into the vagina, resulting in inflammation of the vagina/and uterus and causes infertility.

v Septic metritis or puerperal metritis : The metritis which occurs just after parturition i.e. within 1-10 days with systemic symptoms is called septic metritis.

v Post-partum metritis : The metritis which occurs after 2 to 8 weeks or more after parturition, is called post-partum metritis. Here the animal does not show systemic symptoms.

v Perimetritis : Inflammation of the serosa of uterus.

v Parametritis : Inflammation of the uterine ligaments.

v Sclerotic metritis : The complete destruction of endometrium as a result of severe chronic endometritis and replaced by fibrous tissue, is called sclerotic metritis.

v Endometriosis : The old term "Chronic degenerative endometritis" is now replaced by endometriosis. Endometeriosis can be defined as a collective term to describe the wide range of degenerative changes like fibrosis and glandular degenerative changes.

v Hydrosalpinx : The accumulation of fluid in fallopian tube is called hydrosalpinx.

v Pyosalpinx : The accumulation of pus in fallopian tube is called pyosalpinx.

v Hydrometra and Mucometra : The accumulation of thin or viscid fluid in the uterus, is called Hydrometra or mucometra.

v Pyometra : Accumulation of pus in the uterus.

v Metrorrhagia : Bleeding from genital tract is called metrorrhagia.

v Embryo transfer technology (ETI) : The technique by which fertilized embryos are collected from a donor female and transferred to recipient females that serve as surrogate mothers for the remaining period of pregnancy is called embryo transfer technology.

v Superovulation : The artificial production of an abnormally large number of ova from an ovary is called superovulation. This is achieved by administration of FSH or eCG, which increases the number of follicles maturing and ovulating. OR superovulation can be defined as increased ovulatory response above a normal level by means of external hormonal therapy that would not be expected to occur naturally.

v Synchronization of oestrus : Oestrus synchronization involves manipulation of the reproductive process by means of external hormonal therapy so that groups of females can be bred during a short predefined interval with normal fertility.

v In vitro Fertilization (IVF) : The fertilization of an oocyte by a spermatozoon outside the body of a living animal is called IVF. Oocytes obtained from living or recently slaughtered animals, are cultured to reach a certain stage of development before mixing with a culture capacitated spermatozoa.

v PRID (Progesterone releasing intra-vaginal device) : A stainless steel coil covered with an inert elastomer containing progesterone (1.55 gm) and oestrogen (10 mg) is kept in the vagina of a heifer or cow in order to influence the animal's oestrous cycle (oestrous synchronization) .

v CIDR (Controlled internal drug release device) : A 'T' shaped device with flexible arms containing

1.9 gm of progesterone, is kept in the vagina of a heifer or cow in order to influence the animal's oestrous cycle (oestrous synchronization).

v Transgenic animals : The animal in which a gene has been transferred during the embryonic stage through the genetic engineering is known as a transgenic animal.

v Molecular farming : When the transgenic animals serve as bioreactors for the large-scale production of specific proteins; this approach has been popularly referred to as molecular farming.

v Base levels of hormones : Basel levels refer to a low and relatively constant level of the hormone in the blood. Hormonal pulses: Pulses refer to a sharp and increased concentration of the hormone in the blood above the basal level of plasma concentration, lasting for short periods, usually less than 1 hour. Hormonal surge: A surge is defined as a large, statistically significant increase in the concentration of a hormone in the blood above the basal level, lasting for more than 1 hour. The massive secretion of gonadotrophin particularly LH for a period, responsible for ovulation is called LH surge.

v Episodk / tonic release : The episodic/ tonic release of hormones (FSH and LH) means continuous basal secretion of gonadotrophin which stimulates the growth of both germinal and endocrine components of the ovary.

v Growth factors : The hormones related substances controlling the growth and development of several organs, tissue and cultured cells are called growth factors. Unlike hormones, growth factors are produced and secreted by cells of different tissues (not specific endocrine glands) and diffuse into target cells.

v Positive feedback mechanism : In this system, an increasing level of hormone (s) causes subsequent increase of another hormone. For example, increasing levels of oestrogen during the preovulatory phase triggers an abrupt release of LH.

v Negative feedback mechanism : This system involves reciprocal inter-relationships between two or more glands and target organs.

v Short-day breeder : An animal which starts to breed when the days are shortenining, is called short- day breeder eg., sheep.

v Long-day breeder : An animal which starts to breed when the days are lengthening, is called long-day breeder eg., mare.

v TVT : Transmissible venereal tumour (TVT) also known as infections sarcoma, venereal granuloma, transmissible lymphosarcoma or stickler tumour is a benign reticuloendothelial tumour of the dog that mainly affects the external genitalia and occasionally the internal genitalia.

Ø  Vincristine sulfate is administered weekly at a dose of 0.5 to 0.7 mg/m2 of the body surface area or

0.025 mg/kg IV.

v Pheromone : The chemical compound that allow communication among animals through the olfactory system are called pheromone or substances produced by an animal that act at a distance to produce hormonal, behavioural or other physiological changes in another animal of the same species have been called pheromone. In primates, including humans, pheromones also have effects. For example, women who are good friends or room-mates te~d to synchronize their menstrual cycles. The armpit odour of women has been shown to be capable of modifying the menstrual cycle. Sex pheromone : The pheromone by which sexual behaviour is affected is called sex pheromone.

v Ram or boar effect : The exposure of ram or boar to the females advance the timing of the onset of puberty and is reffered to as ram or boar effect. This is mediated by pheromones which influence thehypothalamic GnRH secretion.

v Precocious puberty : The appearance of appropriate secondry sexual characteristics before the age of eight in girls, is called precocious puberty. This occurrence is due to premature activation of intact hypothalamus - pituitary-ovarian axis.

v Amenorrhoea : The absence of menstrual period is called amenorrhoea.

1.     Primary amenorrhoea : When menstrual bleeding has never occurred, the condition is called primary amenorrhoea.

2.     Secondary amenorrhoea : The cessation of cycles in a woman with previously normal menstrual period is called secondary amenorrhoea.

v Hypomenorrhoea : When menstrual bleeding is scanty, the condition is called hypomenorrhoea.

v Menorrhagia : When menstrual bleeding is abnormally more in quantity, the condition is called menorrhagia. OR when the duration of menstrual bleeding is prolonged or its quantity increased with unaltered normal cycle i.e. 4/28 becomes 7-10/28. The condition is called menorrhagia.

v Oligomenorrhoea : The reduced frequency of menstrual period is called Oligomenorrhoea.

v Dysmenorrhea : The painful-menstruation is called dysmenorrhea.

v Delayed puberty : When puberty is delayed for as long as five years, it is called delayed puberty. The normal puberty and menarche have occasionally set in as late as twenty years in girls.

v Menopause : The time at which menstruation ceases is called menopause. The meno pause occurs in women between the ages of 45 and 50, the average age is 47.

v Precocious menopause : Menopause before the age of 40, is called precocious menopause.

v Climacteric : It is the phase of waning (declining) ovarian activity and may start two or three years before the menopause and continue for two to five years after it. The climacteric is thus a phase of

adjustment between active and inactive ovarian function and may occupy several years of a woman's life.

v Postmenopausal bleeding : Postmenopausal bleeding is any bleeding from  the genital tract in a woman during postmenopausal age.

v Ring-womb : Non-dilatation of cervix in ewes.

v Disproportion of foetus : Maternal space is main cause of dystokia in primipara bovis. Torsion is more common in bovines, silent heat PGF2α.

v Examples of neuro-endocrine reflexes are let down of milk in cow on suckling and induced ovulation.

v The injection of GnRH stimulates the release of both FSH and LH in domestic species.

v First coccygeal vertebrae is fused to last sacral vertebrae in mare.

v Cervix of sow and glans penis of boar are cork screw shaped.

v Foot hill abortion/ BEA (bovine enzootic abortion) is caused by Chlamydia psittaci.

v Caslick’s operation : An operation for the correction of pneumo-vegina codition in mare, consisting of surgical closure of dorsal portion of vulva.

v Riding test : A farmer putting weight on the back of sow to detect heat.

v Standing heat is a period in oestrus cycle, in which female become sexually receptive and ready for mating by the male.

v Threatened abortion : lower level of progesterone causes threatened abortion in cow.

v Syncromate B used for induction of synchronization of estrus. It contains Norgestomet & Estradiol

v Tobins medium is used for Trichomonas foetus.

v Cervical star : a portion of diffuse placenta or chorion lying over the internal os of cervix in mare.

v Ferguson’s reflex : It is a neuro-endocrine reflex related with the release of oxytocin at the time of parturition and initiated by the presence of fetal parts in birth canal.

v Righting reflex : At the time of parturition foetus first occupies the dilating cervix and then it extends its carpel joint due to myometrial contraction, thereby try to “stand up in utero” and it extends the extremities towards the birth canal in forward direction.

v Oviduct : Opening of infundibulum “ostium tubae abdominal”.

v Opening of utero tubal junction “ostium tubae uterinum”.

v Cattle caruncle arranged in 4 rows (70-120 in number).

v True water (2nd) bag : Amnion

v Uterus Cruciform or ‘T’ shaped in mare and ‘V’ shape in dogs.

v Bitch and queen entire uterus lies in the abdominal cavity.

v Portion of cervix projects in to the vagina : Portio vaginalis

v Fornix : Absent in sow, prominent in mare

v Remnants of wolffian duct : Gartners duct.

v Pregnancy diagnosis also known as Cyesiognosis.

v Hydroallontois ( 88 %) most frequently encountered than Hydroamnios (5 to 10%).

v Fetus decides the day of birth and dam decides the time of birth.

v Bitch : Placentophagy occur.

v Sow : Foetophagy occur.

v During fetal expulsion : Cow, Ewe, Doe in sternal recumbency and Mare in lateral recumbency.

v Foal heat observe 5 -12 days post-partum.

v Bitch : The post-partum Lochia is green colour is due to Uteroverdin (break down product of Hemoglobin).

v Creeper cow : Cow becomes alert and gains control following calcium injection but remains recumbent due to inability to use hind quarters.

v Post-partum heat in pigs 3 – 5 days.

v Dropsy of fetal membranes over all incidence 0.3%.

v Delayed ovulation, silent estrus, anovulation may be due to β-carotene deficiency.

v Early embryonic mortality occurs between 8-19 days after breeding.

v Card test : Rapid, sensitive accurate test for field screening of brucellosis.

v Leptospirosis : Gargety milk

v Ovum ovulated : All species Metaphase II in 2nd meiotic division and Mare, Dog, Fox in 1st meiotic division.

v Rosette inhibition test is used for diagnosis of pregnancy (Early pregnancy factor). It has 72 % sensitivity.

v In cow, implantation actually begins from 11 to 40th day post coitum.

v Uterine milk is composed of protein, fat, and glycogen.

v Between 21st and 22nd day, heart begins to beat in cattle.

v Types of Corpus Luteum :

Ø  Corpus haemorrhagicum : Developing stage.

Ø  Corpus luteum spurium : CL of cyclic non pregnant animal.

Ø  Corpus luteum verum : CL of pregnancy

Ø  Corpus luteum albicans : Degenerating, avascular, non-functional CL

 

APPENDIX

 

v EMBRYOLOGY OF MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS :

 

 

Embryological Structures	Adult Female	Adult male
1. Gonads	·       Ovary	·       Testis
2. Gubernaculum	·       Round ligament of the uterus and proper ligament of the ovary.	·       Ligamentum testis
3. Paramesonephric duct (Mullerian duct)	·       Oviducts,         Uterus,                             Cervix, Cranial portion of vagina.	·       Appendix testis and Uterus musculinus
4. Mesonephric tubules	·       Epoophoron ·       Paroophoron	·       Efferent ducts
5. Mesonephric duct (Wolffian duct)	·       Gartner’s duct	·       Epidymis,     Vas                          deference, Seminal vesicles
6. Urogenital sinus	·       Vestibule	·       Penile urethra

7. Urogenital sinus	·       Vestibular             glands                                   or Bartholin’s glands	·       Bulbourethral                                   glands                                   or Cowper’s glands
8. Urethral / Genital folds	·       Labia minora	·       Prepuce
9. Genital tubercle	·       Clitoris	·       Glans penis
10. Genital swellings	·       Vulvar lips (Labia major)	·       Scrotum

 

v NEUROHORMONES REGULATING REPRODUCTION :

 

 

Hormones	Nature and Origin	Functions
GnRH Tonic	Ventromedial nucleus Arcuate nucleus Median eminence	Stimulates tonic release of FSH & LH.
GnRH Surge	Anterior hypothalamic area Preoptic nuclei Suprachiasmatic nucleus	Stimulates preovulatory surge of FSH & LH.
Oxytocin	Supraoptic nuclei Periventricular nuclei	Uterine     contractions,    Milk     letdown, Gamete transport.
Melatonin	Pineal glands	Inhibits gonadotropic activity in long day breeder and Stimulates onset of breeding season in short day breeder.
Prolactin                          releasing factor (PRH)	Hypothalamus	Stimulates prolactin release.
Prolactin                        inhibiting factor (PIH)	Hypothalamus	Inhibits prolactin release.

 

v PITUITARY HORMONES REGULATIONS REPRODUCTION :

 

 

Hormones	Nature and Origin	Functions
FSH	Gonadotropes (Glycoprotein) Molecular weight 32,000 Dalton	Folliculogenesis in female. Spermatogenesis in male.
LH	Gonadotropes (Glycoprotein) Molecular weight 30,000 Dalton	Ovulation and Luteinization of follicle in female.

		Testosterone secretion in male.
Prolactin	Mammotropes (Protein) Molecular weight 24,000 Dalton	Promotes      lactation      and                           Maternal behaviour.
Oxytocin	Posterior pituitary (Protein)	Uterine    contractions,    Milk                     letdown, Gamete transport.

 

v GONADAL HORMONES REGULATING REPRODUCTION :

 

 

Hormones	Nature	Origin	Functions
Estrogen	Steroid	Theca interna cells of follicle.	Sexual behaviour and development of secondary sexual characters in female.
Progesterone	Steroid	Corpus luteum	Implantation process in uterus and acts                synergistically       in                sexual behaviours in female.
Testosterone	Steroid	Leydig cells of testes	Development of male reproductive system from wolffian duct, Maintaining functions of accessory sex glands, Maintaining of spermatogenesis in male.
Relaxin	Polypeptide	CL and Placenta	Dilation      of      cervix      and      Pelvic ligaments.
Activins	Protein	Follicular fluid in female and Rete testes fluid in male.	Stimulates FSH secretion.
Inhibins	Protein	Sertoli      cells      in      male                    and Granulosa cells of female.	Inhibits release of FSH to a level which maintains species number of ovulations.
Follistatin	Protein	Follicular fluid in female	Modulates secretion of FSH
Prostaglandin	unsaturated fatty acid	Secret all body tissues	Stimulates uterine contractions and Gamete transport.

 

v REPROCUTIVE CHARACTERISTIC OF DIFFERENT FARM ANIMALS :

SPECIES	COW	BUFFALO	EWE	GOAT	SHE CAMEL	MARE		BITCH	QUEEN (CAT)
Age of puberty	10-24 M	18-28 M	6-10 M	6-10 M	24-36 M	15-24 M		6-12 M	6-12 M
Age of breeding( maturity)	30 M	36 M	12-18 M	8-12 M	30-48 M	36 M		12-18 M	12-18 M
Breeding season	All year	All year	Autumn and Spring	Autumn and Spring	Winter and Spring	Apr       to Sept (Spring and Autumn)		Jan         to March and Aug-Sept	Jan       to Oct
Type of estrous cycle	Polyestr ous	Polyestrou s	Seasona l polyestr ous	Seasona l polyest rous	Seasona l polyest rous			Seasonal monoest rous	Seasona l polyest rous
						Seasonal polyestr ous
Length of estrous cycle	21 Days	21 Days	17 Days	21 Days	24 Days	21 Days		16-56 Weeks	15-31 Days
Duration of heat phase	12-16 Hrs	21 Hrs(16- 27)	24 Hrs	30 Hrs	5 Days	6 Days		9 Days	3-6 Days
Optimal time of mating after onset of heat	10-16 Hrs	8-12 Hrs (In                 the second half                          of heat phase)	18-24 Hrs (Second day              of estrous)	24-36 Hrs (Second day      of estrous )	----------	48-72 Hrs (Second &   Third day       of estrous)		2-3 Days	During estrous
Time of ovulation in relation to end of heat period	12-15 Hrs after end              of heat	2-15      Hrs after     end of heat	6-10 Hrs before end              of heat	Around the last day      of heat	32-40 post coitus	38      Hrs before end       of heat		7-8 Days before end        of heat	1-2 Days post coitus
Type of ovulation		----------	----------	----------	Induced	Spontan eous		Spontan eous	Induced
	Spontan eous
Pregnancy duration	278- 293 Days	316-318 Days	144- 151 Days	146- 151 Days	315- 350 Days	330-345 Days		59-68 Days	58-65 Days
1st post- partum estrous	45 Days post calving	90-120 Days	Next fall	Next fall	----------	4-16 Days		5-6 Months	1-6 Weeks

v DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OESTROUS CYCLE AND MENSTRUAL CYCLE :

 

 

Events	Oestrous cycle	Menstrual cycle
Follicular phase	Short (20 % or less of cycle duration	Long (50 % of cycle duration)
Ovulation	At the beginning and end of the cycle	Middle of the cycle (Days 14)
Luteal phase	80 % of the cycle	50 % of the cycle
Fertile period	24 Hrs. or less (5 % of cycle)	Up to 6 days before ovulation (18 % of cycle)
Endometrial sloughing	None	After luteolysis
Luteolysis	Uterine PGF2𝖺	Ovarian PGF2𝖺
Sexual receptivity	Well defined	Relatively      uniform                           throughout cycle
Progesterone function	Inhibits    GnRH                     release  and Inhibits sexual receptivity.	Inhibits GnRH release and Dos not inhibits sexual receptivity.

 

v DIFFERENCES BETWEEN UNIPAROUS AND MULTIPAROUS ANIMAL :

 

 

Uniparous / Monotocous	Multiparous / Polytocous
·       One ovum release at ovulation.	·       3 to15 ova release at ovulation.
·       Carry one foetus in the uterus.	·       Carry more than one foetus in the uterus.
·       Well-developed cervix.	·       Poor-developed cervix.
·       Placenta fills both the horns and body.	·       Each placenta is limited to each horn.
·       Dystocia is common.	·       Dystocia is rare.
·       At the time of parturition the weight of foetus is about 10 % the weight of the post-partum dam.	·       Each foetus is 1 to 3% of dam.

 

v NUMBER OF OVA PRODUCED BY DIFFERENT SPECIES :

 

 

Animals

Number of ova

Cattle, Buffalo and Horse	1
Ewe and Doe	1 – 3
Sow	6 – 20
Bitch	1 – 10
Queen	1 – 12

 

v TRANSPORT TIME OF OVA IN THE OVIDUCT AND ZONA HATCHING IN DIFFERENT ANIMALS :

 

 

Animals	Time in Oviduct	Zona Hatching after ovulation	Stage of embryo
Cattle	90 Hrs.	9 – 11 Days	Morula (8 – 16 cells)
Sheep	72 Hrs.	7 – 8 Days	Morula (8 – 16 cells)
Horse	100 – 140 Hrs.	8 Days	Blastocyst
Sow	50 Hrs.	6 Days	4 cell stage
Dog	148 Hrs.	11 – 12 Days	Blastocyst
Cat	96 – 148 Hrs.	11 – 12 Days	Blastocyst

 

v FERTILE LIFE OF SPERM AND OVA :

 

 

Animals	Fertile lifer of Sperm (Hours)	Fertile life of Ova (Hours)
Cattle	30 – 48	20 – 24
Sheep	30 – 48	16 – 24
Horse	72 – 120	6 – 8
Sow	24 – 72	8 – 19

 

v TIME OF EVENTS IN EARLY EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT :

 

 

Embryonic development	Cattle	Horse	Sheep	Swine
2 cell stage (Days)	1	1	1	0.6 – 0.8
4 cell stage (Days)	1.5	1.5	1.3	1
8 cell stage (Days)	3	3	1.5	2.5
Blastocyst stage (Days)	7 – 8	6	6 – 7	5 – 6
Hatching of blastocyst (Days)	9 – 11	8	7 – 8	6

Blastocyst elongation (Days)	13 – 21	No	11 – 16	11 – 15
Initial placentation (Days)	22	37	15	13

v AVERAGE DURATION OF STAGES OF PARTURITION :

 

 

Animals	Dilation of cervix	Expulsion of foetus	Expulsion of foetal membrane
Cow & Buffalo	2 – 6 Hrs.	1/2 – 1 Hrs.	6 – 12 Hrs.
Ewe	2 – 6 Hrs.	1/2 – 2 Hrs.	1/2 – 8 Hrs.
Mare	1 – 4 Hrs.	12 – 30 Min.	1 Hrs.
Sow	2 – 12 Hrs.	2.5 – 3 Hrs.	1     – 4 Hrs.

 

v TIME REQUIRED FOR INVOLUTION OF UTERUS IN DIFFERENT FARM ANIMALS :

 

 

Animals	Time required
Cow	21 – 28 Days
Buffalo	21 Days
Ewe	30 Days
Mare	8 – 10 Days
Sow	7 Days
Camel	10 Days
Bitch	28 – 35 Days

 

v pH OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT OF CATTLE :

 

 

Part of reproductive tract	pH
Vagina	4.0
Cervical mucus	8.4
Uterus	7.8
Fallopian tubes (Follicular phase)	7.1 – 7.3
Fallopian tubes (Luteal phase)	7.5 – 7.8

 

v IMPORTANT ABORTION CAUSING AGENTS IN DIFFERENT FARM ANIMALS :

Agents	Name of organisms	Time of abortion
CATTLE
Ø  Bacteria	Brucella abortus Leptospira pomona Listeria monocytogens Campylobacter f. veneralis (Vibriosis)	6 – 9 months of gestation Third trimester Third trimester 4 – 7 months of pregnancy
Ø  Virus	IBR – IPV Epizootic Bovine Abortion BVD – MD	At any time 6 – 8 months of gestation At any time
Ø  Mycotic	Aspergillus spp. and Mucorales spp.	4 – 7 months of gestation
Ø  Protozoa	Trichomonas Foetus	1 – 3 months of pregnancy
Ø  Chemicals	Nitrate Poisoning Pine Needle	3 – 9 months of gestation 6 – 9 months of gestation
HORSE
Ø  Bacteria	Streptococcus Zooepidemicus Salmonella abortus equi Leptospirosis Klebsiella pneumonia Taylorella equigenitalis (Contagious equine metritis organisms)	At any time 4 – 11 months of gestation 7 – 11 months of gestation Early embryonic mortality Early embryonic mortality
Ø  Virus	Equine herpes virus I Equine viral arteritis	8 – 11 months of gestation 5 – 10 months of gestation
Ø  Mycotic	Aspergillus spp. and Mucorales spp.	4 – 11 months of gestation
SHEEP AND GOAT
Ø  Bacteria	Campylobacter f. intestinalis Listeria monocytogens Leptospira Pomona Salmonella abortus spp. Brucella ovis in sheep Brucella melitensis in goat	Late abortion Late abortion Late abortion Late abortion Late abortion Late abortion

Ø  Virus	Enzootic    abortion    in   ewes                       (Chlamydia psittaci)   Nairobi sheep Blue tongue	Early embryonic mortality, Still births and Weak offspring, Last months of pregnancy Late abortion
Ø  Protozoa	Toxoplasma gonadii	Late abortion
SWINE
Ø  Bacteria	Brucella suis   Leptospirosis Listeria Monocytogens Erysipelas rhusiopathiae	Abortion,    Embryonic death and Infertility Late abortion
Ø  Virus	PRRS SMEDI VIRUS Pseudo rabies	Abortion during first half Late abortion Abortion during first two half